References

  1. Werner J, Feuerbach S, Uhl W, Buchler MW: Management of acute pancreatitis: from surgery to interventional intensive care.

    Gut 2005, 54:426-436. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | PubMed Central Full Text OpenURL

  2. Buchler MW, Gloor B, Muller CA, Friess H, Seiler CA, Uhl W: Acute necrotizing pancreatitis: treatment strategy according to the status of infection.

    Ann Surg 2000, 232:619-626. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | PubMed Central Full Text OpenURL

  3. Villatoro E, Bassi C, Larvin M: Antibiotic therapy for prophylaxis against infection of pancreatic necrosis in acute pancreatitis.

    Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2006, CD002941. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

  4. Johnson CD, Abu-Hilal M: Persistent organ failure during the first week as a marker of fatal outcome in acute pancreatitis.

    Gut 2004, 53:1340-1344. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | PubMed Central Full Text OpenURL

  5. Isenmann R, Beger HG: Natural history of acute pancreatitis and the role of infection.

    Baillieres Best Pract Res Clin Gastroenterol 1999, 13:291-301. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

  6. Delcenserie R, Yzet T, Ducroix JP: Prophylactic antibiotics in treatment of severe acute alcoholic pancreatitis.

    Pancreas 1996, 13:198-201. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

  7. Isenmann R, Runzi M, Kron M, Kahl S, Kraus D, Jung N, Maier L, Malfertheiner P, Goebell H, Beger HG: Prophylactic antibiotic treatment in patients with predicted severe acute pancreatitis: a placebo-controlled, double-blind trial.

    Gastroenterology 2004, 126:997-1004. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

  8. Nordback I, Sand J, Saaristo R, Paajanen H: Early treatment with antibiotics reduces the need for surgery in acute necrotizing pancreatitis – a single-center randomized study.

    J Gastrointest Surg 2001, 5:113-118. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

    discussion 118–120.

  9. Pederzoli P, Bassi C, Vesentini S, Campedelli A: A randomized multicenter clinical trial of antibiotic prophylaxis of septic complications in acute necrotizing pancreatitis with imipenem.

    Surg Gynecol Obstet 1993, 176:480-483. PubMed Abstract OpenURL

  10. Sainio V, Kemppainen E, Puolakkainen P, Taavitsainen M, Kivisaari L, Valtonen V, Haapiainen R, Schroder T, Kivilaakso E: Early antibiotic treatment in acute necrotising pancreatitis.

    Lancet 1995, 346:663-667. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

  11. Schwarz M, Isenmann R, Meyer H, Beger HG: [Antibiotic use in necrotizing pancreatitis. Results of a controlled study].

    Dtsch Med Wochenschr 1997, 122:356-361. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

  12. Dellinger RP, Carlet JM, Masur H, Gerlach H, Calandra T, Cohen J, Gea-Banacloche J, Keh D, Marshall JC, Parker MM, Ramsay G, Zimmerman JL, Vincent JL, Levy MM: Surviving Sepsis Campaign guidelines for management of severe sepsis and septic shock.

    Intensive Care Med 2004, 30:536-555. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

  13. Rokke O, Harbitz TB, Liljedal J, Pettersen T, Fetvedt T, Heen LO, Skreden K, Viste A: Early treatment of severe pancreatitis with imipenem: a prospective randomized clinical trial.

    Scand J Gastroenterol 2007, 42:771-776. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

  14. Dellinger EP, Tellado JM, Soto NE, Ashley SW, Barie PS, Dugernier T, Imrie CW, Johnson CD, Knaebel HP, Laterre PF, Maravi-Poma E, Kissler JJ, Sanchez-Garcia M, Utzolino S: Early antibiotic treatment for severe acute necrotizing pancreatitis: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study.

    Ann Surg 2007, 245:674-683. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | PubMed Central Full Text OpenURL

  15. Golub R, Siddiqi F, Pohl D: Role of antibiotics in acute pancreatitis: A meta-analysis.

    J Gastrointest Surg 1998, 2:496-503. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

  16. Sharma VK, Howden CW: Prophylactic antibiotic administration reduces sepsis and mortality in acute necrotizing pancreatitis: a meta-analysis.

    Pancreas 2001, 22:28-31. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

  17. Heinrich S, Schafer M, Rousson V, Clavien PA: Evidence-based treatment of acute pancreatitis: a look at established paradigms.

    Ann Surg 2006, 243:154-168. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | PubMed Central Full Text OpenURL

  18. Mazaki T, Ishii Y, Takayama T: Meta-analysis of prophylactic antibiotic use in acute necrotizing pancreatitis.

    Br J Surg 2006, 93:674-684. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

  19. Xiong GS, Wu SM, Wang ZH: Role of prophylactic antibiotic administration in severe acute pancreatitis: a meta-analysis.

    Med Princ Pract 2006, 15:106-110. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

  20. Toouli J, Brooke-Smith M, Bassi C, Carr-Locke D, Telford J, Freeny P, Imrie C, Tandon R: Guidelines for the management of acute pancreatitis.

    J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2002, 17(Suppl):S15-39. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

  21. Uhl W, Warshaw A, Imrie C, Bassi C, McKay CJ, Lankisch PG, Carter R, Di Magno E, Banks PA, Whitcomb DC, Dervenis C, Ulrich CD, Satake K, Ghaneh P, Hartwig W, Werner J, McEntee G, Neoptolemos JP, Büchler MW, International Association of Pancreatology: IAP Guidelines for the Surgical Management of Acute Pancreatitis.

    Pancreatology 2002, 2:565-573. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

  22. UK guidelines for the management of acute pancreatitis

    Gut 2005, 54(Suppl 3):iii1-9. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | PubMed Central Full Text OpenURL

  23. Fiedler F: [Therapy of acute pancreatitis. Consensus guidelines].

    Z Gastroenterol 2000, 38:XL-XLII. PubMed Abstract OpenURL

  24. Beger HG, Bittner R, Block S, Buchler M: Bacterial contamination of pancreatic necrosis. A prospective clinical study.

    Gastroenterology 1986, 91:433-438. PubMed Abstract OpenURL

  25. Werner J, Hartwig W, Buchler MW: Antibiotic prophylaxis: an ongoing controversy in the treatment of severe acute pancreatitis.

    Scand J Gastroenterol 2007, 42:667-672. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

  26. Schmidt J, Rattner DW, Lewandrowski K, Compton CC, Mandavilli U, Knoefel WT, Warshaw AL: A better model of acute pancreatitis for evaluating therapy.

    Ann Surg 1992, 215:44-56. PubMed Abstract | PubMed Central Full Text OpenURL

  27. Yasuda T, Takeyama Y, Ueda T, Shinzeki M, Sawa H, Nakajima T, Kuroda Y: Breakdown of intestinal mucosa via accelerated apoptosis increases intestinal permeability in experimental severe acute pancreatitis.

    J Surg Res 2006, 135:18-26. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

  28. Tarpila E, Nystrom PO, Franzen L, Ihse I: Bacterial translocation during acute pancreatitis in rats.

    Eur J Surg 1993, 159:109-113. PubMed Abstract OpenURL

  29. Gloor B, Muller CA, Worni M, Martignoni ME, Uhl W, Buchler MW: Late mortality in patients with severe acute pancreatitis.

    Br J Surg 2001, 88:975-979. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

  30. Werner J, Uhl W, Hartwig W, Hackert T, Muller C, Strobel O, Buchler MW: Modern phase-specific management of acute pancreatitis.

    Dig Dis 2003, 21:38-45. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

  31. Hartwig W, Maksan SM, Foitzik T, Schmidt J, Herfarth C, Klar E: Reduction in mortality with delayed surgical therapy of severe pancreatitis.

    J Gastrointest Surg 2002, 6:481-487. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

  32. Blum T, Maisonneuve P, Lowenfels AB, Lankisch PG: Fatal outcome in acute pancreatitis: its occurrence and early prediction.

    Pancreatology 2001, 1:237-241. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

  33. Manes G, Uomo I, Menchise A, Rabitti PG, Ferrara EC, Uomo G: Timing of antibiotic prophylaxis in acute pancreatitis: a controlled randomized study with meropenem.

    Am J Gastroenterol 2006, 101:1348-1353. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

  34. van Minnen LP, Blom M, Timmerman HM, Visser MR, Gooszen HG, Akkermans LM: The use of animal models to study bacterial translocation during acute pancreatitis.

    J Gastrointest Surg 2007, 11:682-689. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | PubMed Central Full Text OpenURL

  35. Schmidt J, Lewandrowsi K, Warshaw AL, Compton CC, Rattner DW: Morphometric characteristics and homogeneity of a new model of acute pancreatitis in the rat.

    Int J Pancreatol 1992, 12:41-51. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

  36. Medich DS, Lee TK, Melhem MF, Rowe MI, Schraut WH, Lee KK: Pathogenesis of pancreatic sepsis.

    Am J Surg 1993, 165:46-50. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

    discussion 51–42.

  37. Marotta F, Geng TC, Wu CC, Barbi G: Bacterial translocation in the course of acute pancreatitis: beneficial role of nonabsorbable antibiotics and lactitol enemas.

    Digestion 1996, 57:446-452. PubMed Abstract OpenURL

  38. Saglamkaya U, Mas MR, Yasar M, Simsek I, Mas NN, Kocabalkan F: Penetration of meropenem and cefepim into pancreatic tissue during the course of experimental acute pancreatitis.

    Pancreas 2002, 24:264-268. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

  39. Foitzik T, Fernandez-del Castillo C, Ferraro MJ, Mithofer K, Rattner DW, Warshaw AL: Pathogenesis and prevention of early pancreatic infection in experimental acute necrotizing pancreatitis.

    Ann Surg 1995, 222:179-185. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | PubMed Central Full Text OpenURL

  40. Wang X, Andersson R, Soltesz V, Leveau P, Ihse I: Gut origin sepsis, macrophage function, and oxygen extraction associated with acute pancreatitis in the rat.

    World J Surg 1996, 20:299-307. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

    discussion 307–298.

  41. Ammori BJ, Fitzgerald P, Hawkey P, McMahon MJ: The early increase in intestinal permeability and systemic endotoxin exposure in patients with severe acute pancreatitis is not associated with systemic bacterial translocation: molecular investigation of microbial DNA in the blood.

    Pancreas 2003, 26:18-22. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

  42. Shanmugam N, Isenmann R, Barkin JS, Beger HG: Pancreatic fungal infection.

    Pancreas 2003, 27:133-138. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

  43. Gloor B, Muller CA, Worni M, Stahel PF, Redaelli C, Uhl W, Buchler MW: Pancreatic infection in severe pancreatitis: the role of fungus and multiresistant organisms.

    Arch Surg 2001, 136:592-596. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

  44. De Waele JJ, Vogelaers D, Blot S, Colardyn F: Fungal infections in patients with severe acute pancreatitis and the use of prophylactic therapy.

    Clin Infect Dis 2003, 37:208-213. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

  45. Raad I, Hanna H, Maki D: Intravascular catheter-related infections: advances in diagnosis, prevention, and management.

    Lancet Infect Dis 2007, 7:645-657. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL