Bench-to-bedside review: Preventive measures for contrast-induced nephropathy in critically ill patients

Abstract

An increasing number of diagnostic imaging procedures requires the use of intravenous radiographic contrast agents, which has led to a parallel increase in the incidence of contrast-induced nephropathy. Risk factors for development of contrast-induced nephropathy include pre-existing renal dysfunction (especially diabetic nephropathy and multiple myeloma-associated nephropathy), dehydration, congestive heart failure and use of concurrent nephrotoxic medication (including aminoglycosides and amphotericin B). Because contrast-induced nephropathy accounts for a significant increase in hospital-acquired renal failure, several strategies to prevent contrast-induced nephropathy are currently advocated, including use of alternative imaging techniques (for which contrast media are not needed), use of (the lowest possible amount of) iso-osmolar or low-osmolar contrast agents (instead of high-osmolar contrast agents), hyperhydration and forced diuresis. Administration of N-acetylcysteine, theophylline, or fenoldopam, sodium bicarbonate infusion, and periprocedural haemofiltration/haemodialysis have been investigated as preventive measures in recent years. This review addresses the literature on these newer strategies. Since only one (nonrandomized) study has been performed in intensive care unit patients, at present it is difficult to draw firm conclusions about preventive measures for contrast-induced nephropathy in the critically ill. Further studies are needed to determine the true role of these preventive measures in this group of patients who are at risk for contrast-induced nephropathy. Based on the available evidence, we advise administration of N-acetylcysteine, preferentially orally, or theophylline intravenously, next to hydration with bicarbonate solutions.

Introduction

Contrast-induced nephropathy, defined as an increase in serum creatinine by more than 25% or 44 μmol/l from baseline within 3 days after administration of contrast agents in the absence of an alternative aetiology [1,2], is a major cause of hospital-acquired acute renal failure [3,4]. Indeed, the incidence of contrast-induced nephropathy is as high as 10–30% in high-risk patient groups [5-8]. Contrast-induced nephropathy increases morbidity, mortality and costs of medical care, and length of hospital stay, and not just for those patients who need renal replacement therapy because of this complication [3,5,7-9]. Risk factors for contrast-induced nephropathy include pre-existing renal failure (especially diabetic nephropathy and multiple myeloma), hypovolaemia, administration of (cumulative) high doses of (hyperosmolar) contrast media, and concomitant use of drugs that interfere with the regulation of renal perfusion [3,8,10-13].

The Contrast Media Safety Committee of the European Society of Urogenital Radiology [14] has produced simple guidelines to prevent contrast-induced nephropathy. These guidelines emphasize the importance of patient selection (avoid the use of contrast media in high risk groups; i.e. use another imaging technique) and advises avoidance of the use (of large doses) of (hyperosmolar) contrast agents. Furthermore, the guidelines recommend ensuring that patients are well hydrated; cessation of diuretics (particularly loop-diuretics); and cessation of concurrent nephrotoxic drugs, such as non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, aminoglycosides, amfotericine B, and antiviral drugs like acyclovir and foscarnet.

Critically ill patients are a group at high risk for the development of contrast-induced nephropathy because they frequently suffer from renal failure as a part of multiple organ failure, and they may have pre-existing diabetic nephropathy. Moreover, they are repeatedly administered contrast media intravenously, sometimes in large dosages. Unfortunately, the preventive measures described in the guidelines cited above are frequently not applicable to this high-risk group; for instance, avoidance of use of contrast media is almost never an option in this group, and in most instances nephrotoxic drugs cannot be stopped.

Several additional measures to prevent contrast-induced nephropathy have been tested in randomized controlled trials in recent years. These measures include administration of the free radical scavenger N-acetylcysteine (NAC), the adenosine antagonist theophylline, sodium bicarbonate, the dopamine type 1 receptor agonist fenoldopam, and haemofiltration/ haemodialysis. In this report, following a brief discussion of the pathogenesis of contrast-induced nephropathy, we review the published clinical trials examining these additional preventive measures. Thereafter, we focus on contrast-induced nephropathy in critically ill patients and attempt to provide clear recommendations regarding whether/when these new preventive measures may be applied in critically ill patients.

Search results

A search of the PubMed database (National Library of Medicine, USA; http://www.pubmed.org webcite) from 1966 to July 2004 for unlimited citations using the MeSH terms 'nephropathy' AND 'media, contrast' yielded a total of 317 publications. A search using the terms 'prevention and control' (as a subheading in the MeSH database) OR 'prevention' found a total of 662,665 papers. Combining these searches and limiting the new search to 'human' and 'clinical trial' resulted in a list of 64 papers, 59 of which were in English language. After carefully reading the abstracts, only those papers reporting on clinical trials in humans were selected for further reading. The reference lists of these publications and several reviews on preventive measures [15-21] were used to find additional papers. This search resulted in identification of a total of 16 papers on NAC [13,22-36], one paper on sodium bicarbonate [37], nine papers on theophylline [38-46], five papers on fenoldopam [23,36,47-49] and four papers on haemofiltration/haemodialysis [50-53]. Only one published study dealt with critically ill patients [43].

Pathogenesis of contrast-induced nephropathy: rationale for additional preventive measures

Although the pathogenesis of contrast-induced nephropathy has not completely been elucidated, it is suggested that nephropathy following contrast administration is caused by a combination of renal ischaemia and direct tubular epithelial cell toxicity. (The reader is referred to several excellent reviews [21,54-56].)

A direct toxic effect of contrast on renal epithelial cells is suggested by histopathological changes, including epithelial cell vacuolization, interstitial inflammation and cellular necrosis, as well as by increased excretion of enzymes in the urine after contrast administration [57,58]. Because contrast-induced nephropathy is less frequent with iso-osmolar or low-osmolar contrast agents than with high-osmolar contrast agents, it is believed that osmolality per se may play a role in its pathogenesis. Reactive oxygen metabolites play a role in the pathogenesis of a variety of renal diseases [59]. Generation of reactive oxygen species may play a role in the pathogenesis of contrast-induced nephropathy too [60,61]. Based on this theory regarding the pathogenesis of contrast-induced nephropathy, measures that are aimed at scavenging free reactive oxygen species (such as with NAC – a free radical scavenger) or at limiting the production of free reactive oxygen species (using sodium bicarbonate infusion, which prevents an acidic environment in tubular urine) have been advocated as adjuncts to hyperhydration and use of iso-osmolar contrast media.

Investigations into the pathogenesis of contrast-induced nephropathy [62,63] have demonstrated that following intravenous administration of contrast, after a transient increase, renal blood flow decreases for a prolonged period under normal conditions. The renal medulla normally has an extremely low oxygen tension, which makes the renal medulla susceptible to ischaemic injury. The contrast-induced decrease in renal blood flow further diminishes medullary oxygen tension, resulting in epithelial cell necrosis. Based on preclinical studies, endogenous intrarenal adenosine has been implicated as a causative factor in contrast-induced nephropathy. Adenosine causes afferent arteriolar vaso-constriction and efferent arteriolar vasodilatation, thereby reducing the glomerular filtration rate. This theory on the pathogenesis of contrast-induced nephropathy resulted in the introduction of measures aimed at increasing renal blood flow, for example administration of theophylline (a selective renal adenosine antagonist) or of fenoldopam mesylate (a selective dopamine-1 receptor agonist that increases effective renal plasma flow without concomitant changes in glomerular filtration rate). Previous studies on vasodilators such as calcium antagonists, dopamine, atrial natriuretic peptide and endothelin antagonists either demonstrated no effect or found that these agents had an adverse effect on contrast-induced nephropathy. These vasodilators predominantly increase cortical blood flow, giving rise to an intrarenal steal phenomenon and subsequent increased medullary ischaemia.

Another potential approach to preventing contrast-induced nephropathy is the use of haemodialysis or haemofiltration. The half-lives of contrast media are increased several fold in patients with impaired renal function because most contrast media are excreted in the urine [64]. Haemodialysis removes contrast media effectively, and therefore it may prevent contrast-induced nephropathy [65-67]. Haemofiltration is also able to remove contrast from the circulation [68]. In addition, haemofiltration results in dilution of contrast agents via infusion of the replacement fluid, which decreases the concentration of the contrast agent in the blood, possibly reducing exposure of the kidneys to the nephrotoxic effects of contrast media.

Clinical trials on prevention of contrast-induced nephropathy

N-acetylcysteine

Sixteen randomized controlled trials investigated the efficacy of NAC in preventing contrast-induced nephropathy, both in patients with pre-existing renal insufficiency and in patients with normal renal function (Table 1) [13,22-36]. One of these trials compared NAC with fenoldopam [36]. In another study, two different doses of NAC were compared directly [33]. In the majority of studies, 600 mg NAC twice daily was administered on the day before and on the day of intravenous administration of contrast media. Cumulative dosages varied from 1500 mg to 4800 mg. In all but two studies [28,31], NAC was administered orally.

Of the 16 clinical trials, 14 compared NAC plus hydration with hydration alone [13,22-32,34,35]. Although five trials found a significant protective effect of NAC compared with standard treatment [22,25,27,30,32], eight found no beneficial effect of administration of NAC [13,23,24,26,28,29,31,35]. Possible explanations for these contrasting results are differences in applied hydration regimens, in the patient populations studied and in the volumes of contrast media administered, and variations in the timing and dosing of NAC. In one study [33], double dose of oral NAC appeared to be more effective than the standard dose in preventing contrast-induced nephropathy. Side-effects of NAC are few. Oral administration of NAC caused gastrointestinal side effects in one study [13]; temporary flushing, itching and rash, as well as congestive heart failure, were observed with intravenous administration [28].

Three meta-analyses [16-18] on the protective effect of NAC against contrast-induced nephropathy were conducted. Birck and coworkers [16] and Isenbarger and colleagues [17] included only seven of the above-mentioned trials in their meta-analyses, and Alonso and coworkers [18] included eight of them. All three meta-analyses concluded that prophylactic use of NAC reduced the relative risk (RR) for contrast-induced nephropathy. In their meta-analysis, Birck and coworkers found a RR reduction of 56% (RR 0.43, 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.21–0.88). The other meta-analyses found RR reductions of 63% (RR 0.37, 95% CI 0.16–0.84) [17] and 59% (RR 0.41, 95% CI 0.22–0.79) [18]. Unfortunately, several studies showing negative results were published after the three meta-analyses.

It is questionable whether NAC truly influences the extent of contrast-induced nephropathy. It may be that NAC has a direct effect on creatinine concentration [69,70]. A recent study, conducted in volunteers with normal renal function, found an effect of NAC on plasma creatinine values and estimated glomerular filtration rate without any effect on cystatin C levels (another marker of glomerular filtration rate). Regrettably, nearly all investigators only used serum creatinine as a surrogate end-point in their trials. In future trials, glomerular filtration rate should be measured directly, or at least additional markers of renal function (e.g. serum cystatin C) must be assessed.

Nevertheless, because the side-effects of NAC are few, it is now widely recommended that NAC be administered before and on the day of contrast administration.

Theophylline

Eight randomized controlled trials and one nonrandomized study have been performed investigating the protective effect of theophylline on contrast-induced nephropathy (Table 2) [38-46]. In one of these studies, theophylline plus hydration was compared with two other preventive regimens (hydration alone or hydration plus dopamine) [41]. The dosage, timing and route of administration varied between the different studies. In six studies, theophylline was given intravenously and in three studies it was given orally. The timing of administration varied from 2 days to 30 min before and 3 days after contrast administration. Cumulative dosages varied from 165 mg to 4000 mg.

Seven trials [38-41,44-46] concluded that theophylline had a preventive effect, and two trials [42,43] did not find a beneficial effect in preventing contrast-induced nephropathy. It is difficult to draw firm conclusions from the available results, primarily because the studies were performed in small groups of patients. Furthermore, inclusion criteria (such as extent of pre-existing renal dysfunction and comorbidity), the amount and osmolality of the contrast media used, and concomitant medication varied widely.

Although optimal intravenous hydration is an important preventive measure (as described above), only a minority of the studies employed a strict intravenous hydration regimen [38,39,41]. In the other trials the hydration regimen was either not mentioned or the amount of fluid administered varied between patients. Another explanation for conflicting effects of theophylline in individual patients may be the unpredictable bioavailability after oral administration of theophylline.

Because the majority of studies show a favourable effect of theophylline and because side effects of this drug are few (especially at the proposed low dosage), theophylline may be an attractive measure to prevent contrast-induced nephropathy. In the case of acute need to use contrast agents (i.e. when adequate hydration cannot be achieved or if NAC was not given on the day before contrast administration), theophylline has the advantage that it can be given directly before contrast injection.

Studies on fenoldopam

Five trials have been performed evaluating fenoldopam infusion as a preventive measure for contrast-induced nephropathy [23,36,47-49], four of which were randomized controlled trials (Table 3). In two studies fenoldopam was compared with standard therapy [48,49]; in the other studies fenoldopam was compared with NAC [23,36]. Fenoldopam administration varied from 15 min to 4 hours before and from 4 to 12 hours after intravenous administration of contrast media. In all studies, infusion of 0.1 μg/kg per min fenoldopam was prescribed.

None of the randomized controlled studies found any beneficial effect regarding prevention of contrast-induced nephropathy. One study, however, suggested that fenoldopam is as effective as NAC in preventing contrast-induced nephropathy [23].

One important drawback of fenoldopam administration is a potential fall in systemic blood pressure caused by fenoldopam-induced vasodilatation. Based on the negative effects of fenoldopam and the drawback of potential hypotension, use of fenoldopam as a measure to prevent contrast-induced nephropathy cannot be recommended.

Sodium bicarbonate

Only one study [37] evaluated the protective effect of sodium bicarbonate. In that study 154 mEq/l sodium bicarbonate was administered at a dosage of 3 ml/kg per hour for 1 hour, starting 1 hour before the intravenous administration of contrast media followed by 1 ml/kg per hour for 6 hours. That study found a strong beneficial effect of infusion of sodium bicarbonate; whereas contrast-induced nephropathy developed in 13.6% of patients receiving sodium chloride, only 1.7% of patients receiving sodium bicarbonate developed nephropathy.

Unfortunately, the positive results of that study have not (yet) been confirmed by other trials. However, because side effects of this regimen are few, in the case of acute need to administer contrast (i.e. when there is not sufficient time to achieve adequate hydration and NAC administration has not yet started) hydration with sodium bicarbonate is an option.

Haemodialysis/haemofiltration

Four studies evaluated the effect of haemodialysis or haemofiltration on contrast-induced nephropathy [50-53]. Three studies were performed in a randomized manner (Table 3) [50,52,53]. In one study, patients were randomly assigned to receive haemodialysis or standard therapy [50]; unfortunately, harmful effects of haemodialysis were found in that study. Two studies compared standard therapy with haemofiltration; while one study did not show any effect of haemofiltration [53], the study by Marenzi and coworkers [52] found haemofiltration to be a very effective preventive measure. Contrast-induced nephropathy developed in only 5% of patients treated with haemofiltration versus 50% of control patients [52]. Regrettably, however, patients were admitted to different wards (patients assigned to receive haemofiltration were admitted to an intensive care unit, whereas control patients were admitted to a step-down facility). This difference might have had an impact on outcome. In addition, the lower plasma creatinine concentration that was found in the haemofiltration group does not imply less renal dysfunction because haemofiltration itself lowers the plasma creatinine concentration. Based on these findings, at present, haemodialysis and/or haemofiltration cannot be recommended as a measure to prevent contrast-induced nephropathy.

Prevention of contrast-induced nephropathy in critically ill patients

It is uncertain whether contrast-induced nephropathy is an important entity in intensive care medicine. Indeed, no data are available on the incidence of contrast-induced nephropathy in the critically ill or on whether it has a profound impact on morbidity and mortality in these patients. However, the critically ill form an important group at risk for development of contrast-induced nephropathy. Renal failure is a common complication of critical illness; the incidence of acute renal failure among intensive care admissions reaches 15–20%, with 4–6% requiring some form of acute renal replacement therapy [71]. Furthermore, the critically ill are often subject to a number of risk factors for the development of contrast-induced nephropathy (e.g. pre-existing renal insufficiency, especially diabetic nephropathy), factors that influence renal perfusion (e.g. hypovolaemia) and administration of concomitant nephrotoxic medication. It has been shown that even modest degrees of acute renal failure without need for haemodialysis increase the risk for death by fivefold [7].

To the best of our knowledge, there are at present no (randomized controlled) studies on use of NAC, bicarbonate hydration and haemofiltration/haemodialysis as measures to prevent contrast nephropathy in critically ill patients.

Only one published report on measures to prevent contrast-induced nephropathy included critically ill patients [43].

Huber and coworkers investigated whether theophylline reduced the incidence of contrast-induced nephropathy in a prospective study in which results were compared with a series of patients at similar risk for contrast-induced nephropathy in a medical intensive care unit. Seventy-eight patients with at least one risk factor for contrast-induced nephropathy underwent 150 consecutive radiocontrast administrations. Patients received theophylline intravenously 30 min before infusion of contrast medium. Concentrations of serum creatinine and blood urea nitrogen, urine volume, fluid balance, and the incidence of contrast-induced nephropathy were monitored for 48 hours. Despite the large number of risk factors (6.8 per patient), including a high dose of contrast agent, impaired renal function, diabetes mellitus, use of aminoglycosides, vancomycin and catecholamines, serum creatinine concentrations were not increased 24 hours after contrast administration. Only three patients (2%) developed contrast-induced nephropathy, which was significantly lower than the 14% (78/565) in the retrospective data obtained in patients at comparable risk for contrast-induced nephropathy. Side effects such as tachyarrhythmias were not described. Unfortunately, there was no control group.

Nevertheless, because NAC has few side effects, based on studies conducted in non-critically-ill patients this preventive measure may be applied in critically ill patients. Where there is an urgent need for imaging studies that require administration of contrast media, theophylline and bicarbonate hydration are options. However, future studies are needed to determine whether such preventive measures really work. In future trials, the glomerular filtration rate should preferably be measured directly, or at least additional markers of renal function (such as serum cystatin C) should be assessed to determine the effect of the studied strategy. In addition, other 'hard' end-points, such as hospital morbidity and mortality and dialysis dependency, should be considered in the study design [69].

Conclusion

Given the scarce data on preventive measures to reduce contrast-induced nephropathy in intensive care unit patients, no clear recommendations can yet be given. New studies are needed to determine whether such preventive measures are effective in critically ill patients. In addition to plasma creatinine concentrations and glomerular filtration rate, additional markers of renal function (such as serum cystatin C) must be assessed, and other end-points such as hospital morbidity and mortality and dialysis dependency should be considered in the study design.

Simple preventive measures such as avoidance of contrast agents (if possible), adequate hydration and use of low-osmolar contrast agents at the lowest possible volume should be applied. Concomitant use of nephrotoxic medication should be avoided. Despite the absence of studies on preventive measures for contrast-induced nephropathy in critically ill patients, we recommend use of preventive measures that have a demonstrated potential effect in patents who are not critically ill, specifically oral NAC on the day before and on the day of contrast administration, as well as hydration with bicarbonate. If administration of NAC is not possible, then theophylline administration is an alternative preventive measure.

Abbreviations

CI = confidence interval; NAC = N-acetylcysteine; RR = relative risk.

Competing interests

The author(s) declare that they have no competing interests.

References

1. Barrett BJ, Parfrey PS: Prevention of nephrotoxicity induced by radiocontrast agents.

   N Engl J Med 1994, 331:1449-1450. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text

2. Thomsen HS, Morcos SK: Contrast media and the kidney: European Society of Urogenital Radiology (ESUR) guidelines.

   Br J Radiol 2003, 76:513-518. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text

3. Rich MW, Crecelius CA: Incidence, risk factors, and clinical course of acute renal insufficiency after cardiac catheterization in patients 70 years of age or older. A prospective study.

   Arch Intern Med 1990, 150:1237-1242. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text

4. Soma VR, Cavusoglu E, Vidhun R, Frishman WH, Sharma SK: Contrast-associated nephropathy.

   Heart Dis 2002, 4:372-379. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text

5. McCullough PA, Wolyn R, Rocher LL, Levin RN, O'Neill WW: Acute renal failure after coronary intervention: incidence, risk factors, and relationship to mortality.

   Am J Med 1997, 103:368-375. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text

6. Gruberg L, Mintz GS, Mehran R, Gangas G, Lansky AJ, Kent KM, Pichard AD, Satler LF, Leon MB: The prognostic implications of further renal function deterioration within 48 h of interventional coronary procedures in patients with pre-existent chronic renal insufficiency.

   J Am Coll Cardiol 2000, 36:1542-1548. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text

7. Levy EM, Viscoli CM, Horwitz RI: The effect of acute renal failure on mortality. A cohort analysis.

   JAMA 1996, 275:1489-1494. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text

8. Rihal CS, Textor SC, Grill DE, Berger PB, Ting HH, Best PJ, Singh M, Bell MR, Barsness GW, Mathew V, et al.: Incidence and prognostic importance of acute renal failure after percutaneous coronary intervention.

   Circulation 2002, 105:2259-2264. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text

9. Aronow HD, Peyser PA, Eagle KA, Bates ER, Werns SW, Russman PL, Crum MA, Harris K, Moscucci M: Predictors of length of stay after coronary stenting.

   Am Heart J 2001, 142:799-805. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text

10. Manske CL, Sprafka JM, Strony JT, Wang Y: Contrast nephropathy in azotemic diabetic patients undergoing coronary angiography.

    Am J Med 1990, 89:615-620. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text

11. Weisberg LS, Kurnik PB, Kurnik BR: Risk of radiocontrast nephropathy in patients with and without diabetes mellitus.

    Kidney Int 1994, 45:259-265. PubMed Abstract

12. Mueller C, Buerkle G, Buettner HJ, Petersen J, Perruchoud AP, Eriksson U, Marsch S, Roskamm H: Prevention of contrast media-associated nephropathy: randomized comparison of 2 hydration regimens in 1620 patients undergoing coronary angioplasty.

    Arch Intern Med 2002, 162:329-336. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text

13. Oldemeyer JB, Biddle WP, Wurdeman RL, Mooss AN, Cichowski E, Hilleman DE: Acetylcysteine in the prevention of contrast-induced nephropathy after coronary angiography.

    Am Heart J 2003, 146:E23. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text

14. Morcos SK, Thomsen HS, Webb JA: Contrast-media-induced nephrotoxicity: a consensus report. Contrast Media Safety Committee, European Society of Urogenital Radiology (ESUR).

    Eur Radiol 1999, 9:1602-1613. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text

15. Tepel M, Zidek W, van der Giet M, Schwarzfeld C, Laufer U, Liermann D: Acetylcysteine and contrast media nephropathy. Prevention of radiographic-contrast-agent-induced reductions in renal function by acetylcysteine.

    Curr Opin Nephrol Hypertens 2002, 11:503-506. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text

16. Birck R, Krzossok S, Markowetz F, Schnulle P, van der Woude FJ, Braun C: Acetylcysteine for prevention of contrast nephropathy: meta-analysis.

    Lancet 2003, 362:598-603. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text

17. Isenbarger DW, Kent SM, O'Malley PG: Meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials on the usefulness of acetylcysteine for prevention of contrast nephropathy.

    Am J Cardiol 2003, 92:1454-1458. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text

18. Alonso A, Lau J, Jaber BL, Weintraub A, Sarnak MJ: Prevention of radiocontrast nephropathy with N-acetylcysteine in patients with chronic kidney disease: a meta-analysis of randomized, controlled trials.

    Am J Kidney Dis 2004, 43:1-9. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text

19. Asif A, Epstein M: Prevention of radiocontrast-induced nephropathy.

    Am J Kidney Dis 2004, 44:12-24. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text

20. Walker PD, Brokering KL, Theobald JC: Fenoldopam and Nacetylcysteine for the prevention of radiographic contrast material-induced nephropathy: a review.

    Pharmacotherapy 2003, 23:1617-1626. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text

21. Morcos SK: Prevention of contrast media nephrotoxicity: the story so far.

    Clin Radiol 2004, 59:381-389. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text

22. Tepel M, van der Giet M, Schwarzfeld C, Laufer U, Liermann D, Zidek W: Prevention of radiographic-contrast-agent-induced reductions in renal function by acetylcysteine.

    N Engl J Med 2000, 343:180-184. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text

23. Allaqaband S, Tumuluri R, Malik AM, Gupta A, Volkert P, Shalev Y, Bajwa TK: Prospective randomized study of N-acetylcysteine, fenoldopam, and saline for prevention of radiocontrast-induced nephropathy.

    Catheter Cardiovasc Interv 2002, 57:279-283. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text

24. Briguori C, Manganelli F, Scarpato P, Elia PP, Golia B, Riviezzo G, Lepore S, Librera M, Villari B, Colombo A, et al.: Acetylcysteine and contrast agent-associated nephrotoxicity.

    J Am Coll Cardiol 2002, 40:298-303. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text

25. Diaz-Sandoval LJ, Kosowsky BD, Losordo DW: Acetylcysteine to prevent angiography-related renal tissue injury (the APART trial).

    Am J Cardiol 2002, 89:356-358. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text

26. Durham JD, Caputo C, Dokko J, Zaharakis T, Pahlavan M, Keltz J, Dutka P, Marzo K, Maesaka JK, Fishbane S: A randomized controlled trial of Nacetylcysteine to prevent contrast nephropathy in cardiac angiography.

    Kidney Int 2002, 62:2202-2207. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text

27. Shyu KG, Cheng JJ, Kuan P: Acetylcysteine protects against acute renal damage in patients with abnormal renal function undergoing a coronary procedure.

    J Am Coll Cardiol 2002, 40:1383-1388. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text

28. Baker CS, Wragg A, Kumar S, De Palma R, Baker LR, Knight CJ: A rapid protocol for the prevention of contrast-induced renal dysfunction: the RAPPID study.

    J Am Coll Cardiol 2003, 41:2114-2118. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text

29. Boccalandro F, Amhad M, Smalling RW, Sdringola S: Oral acetylcysteine does not protect renal function from moderate to high doses of intravenous radiographic contrast.

    Catheter Cardiovasc Interv 2003, 58:336-341. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text

30. Kay J, Chow WH, Chan TM, Lo SK, Kwok OH, Yip A, Fan K, Lee CH, Lam WF: Acetylcysteine for prevention of acute deterioration of renal function following elective coronary angiography and intervention: a randomized controlled trial.

    JAMA 2003, 289:553-558. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text

31. Kefer JM, Hanet CE, Boitte S, Wilmotte L, De Kock M: Acetylcysteine, coronary procedure and prevention of contrast-induced worsening of renal function: which benefit for which patient?

    Acta Cardiol 2003, 58:555-560. PubMed Abstract

32. MacNeill BD, Harding SA, Bazari H, Patton KK, Colon-Hernadez P, DeJoseph D, Jang IK: Prophylaxis of contrast-induced nephropathy in patients undergoing coronary angiography.

    Catheter Cardiovasc Interv 2003, 60:458-461. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text

33. Briguori C, Colombo A, Violante A, Balestrieri P, Manganelli F, Paolo Elia P, Golia B, Lepore S, Riviezzo G, Scarpato P, et al.: Standard vs double dose of Nacetylcysteine to prevent contrast agent associated nephrotoxicity. Acetylcysteine and contrast agent-associated nephrotoxicity.

    Eur Heart J 2004, 25:206-211. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text

34. Fung JW, Szeto CC, Chan WW, Kum LC, Chan AK, Wong JT, Wu EB, Yip GW, Chan JY, Yu CM, et al.: Effect of Nacetylcysteine for prevention of contrast nephropathy in patients with moderate to severe renal insufficiency: a randomized trial.

    Am J Kidney Dis 2004, 43:801-808. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text

35. Goldenberg I, Shechter M, Matetzky S, Jonas M, Adam M, Pres H, Elian D, Agranat O, Schwammenthal E, Guetta V: Oral acetylcysteine as an adjunct to saline hydration for the prevention of contrast-induced nephropathy following coronary angiography. A randomized controlled trial and review of the current literature.

    Eur Heart J 2004, 25:212-218. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text

36. Briguori C, Colombo A, Airoldi F, Violante A, Castelli A, Balestrieri P, Paolo Elia P, Golia B, Lepore S, Riviezzo G, et al.: N-Acetylcysteine versus fenoldopam mesylate to prevent contrast agent-associated nephrotoxicity.

    J Am Coll Cardiol 2004, 44:762-765. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text

37. Merten GJ, Burgess WP, Gray LV, Holleman JH, Roush TS, Kowalchuk GJ, Bersin RM, Van Moore A, Simonton CA 3rd, Rittase RA, et al.: Prevention of contrast-induced nephropathy with sodium bicarbonate: a randomized controlled trial.

    JAMA 2004, 291:2328-2334. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text

38. Erley CM, Duda SH, Schlepckow S, Koehler J, Huppert PE, Strohmaier WL, Bohle A, Risler T, Osswald H: Adenosine antagonist theophylline prevents the reduction of glomerular filtration rate after contrast media application.

    Kidney Int 1994, 45:1425-1431. PubMed Abstract

39. Katholi RE, Taylor GJ, McCann WP, Woods WT Jr, Womack KA, McCoy CD, Katholi CR, Moses HW, Mishkel GJ, Lucore CL, et al.: Nephrotoxicity from contrast media: attenuation with theophylline.

    Radiology 1995, 195:17-22. PubMed Abstract

40. Kolonko A, Wiecek A, Kokot F: The nonselective adenosine antagonist theophylline does prevent renal dysfunction induced by radiographic contrast agents.

    J Nephrol 1998, 11:151-156. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text

41. Abizaid AS, Clark CE, Mintz GS, Dosa S, Popma JJ, Pichard AD, Satler LF, Harvey M, Kent KM, Leon MB: Effects of dopamine and aminophylline on contrast-induced acute renal failure after coronary angioplasty in patients with preexisting renal insufficiency.

    Am J Cardiol 1999, 83:260-263. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text

    A265

42. Erley CM, Duda SH, Rehfuss D, Scholtes B, Bock J, Muller C, Osswald H, Risler T: Prevention of radiocontrast-media-induced nephropathy in patients with pre-existing renal insufficiency by hydration in combination with the adenosine antagonist theophylline.

    Nephrol Dial Transplant 1999, 14:1146-1149. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text

43. Huber W, Jeschke B, Page M, Weiss W, Salmhofer H, Schweigart U, Ilgmann K, Reichenberger J, Neu B, Classen M: Reduced incidence of radiocontrast-induced nephropathy in ICU patients under theophylline prophylaxis: a prospective comparison to series of patients at similar risk.

    Intensive Care Med 2001, 27:1200-1209. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text

44. Huber W, Ilgmann K, Page M, Hennig M, Schweigart U, Jeschke B, Lutilsky L, Weiss W, Salmhofer H, Classen M: Effect of theophylline on contrast material-nephropathy in patients with chronic renal insufficiency: controlled, randomized, double-blinded study.

    Radiology 2002, 223:772-779. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text

45. Kapoor A, Kumar S, Gulati S, Gambhir S, Sethi RS, Sinha N: The role of theophylline in contrast-induced nephropathy: a case-control study.

    Nephrol Dial Transplant 2002, 17:1936-1941. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text

46. Huber W, Schipek C, Ilgmann K, Page M, Hennig M, Wacker A, Schweigart U, Lutilsky L, Valina C, Seyfarth M, et al.: Effectiveness of theophylline prophylaxis of renal impairment after coronary angiography in patients with chronic renal insufficiency.

    Am J Cardiol 2003, 91:1157-1162. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text

47. Kini AA, Sharma SK: Managing the high-risk patient: experience with fenoldopam, a selective dopamine receptor agonist, in prevention of radiocontrast nephropathy during percutaneous coronary intervention.

    Rev Cardiovasc Med 2001, 2:S19-S25. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text

48. Tumlin JA, Wang A, Murray PT, Mathur VS: Fenoldopam mesy-late blocks reductions in renal plasma flow after radiocontrast dye infusion: a pilot trial in the prevention of contrast nephropathy.

    Am Heart J 2002, 143:894-903. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text

49. Stone GW, McCullough PA, Tumlin JA, Lepor NE, Madyoon H, Murray P, Wang A, Chu AA, Schaer GL, Stevens M, et al.: Fenoldopam mesylate for the prevention of contrast-induced nephropathy: a randomized controlled trial.

    JAMA 2003, 290:2284-2291. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text

50. Vogt B, Ferrari P, Schonholzer C, Marti HP, Mohaupt M, Wiederkehr M, Cereghetti C, Serra A, Huynh-Do U, Uehlinger D, et al.: Prophylactic hemodialysis after radiocontrast media in patients with renal insufficiency is potentially harmful.

    Am J Med 2001, 111:692-698. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text

51. Marenzi G, Bartorelli AL, Lauri G, Assanelli E, Grazi M, Cam-podonico J, Marana I: Continuous veno-venous hemofiltration for the treatment of contrast-induced acute renal failure after percutaneous coronary interventions.

    Catheter Cardiovasc Interv 2003, 58:59-64. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text

52. Marenzi G, Marana I, Lauri G, Assanelli E, Grazi M, Campodonico J, Trabattoni D, Fabbiocchi F, Montorsi P, Bartorelli AL: The prevention of radiocontrast-agent-induced nephropathy by hemofiltration.

    N Engl J Med 2003, 349:1333-1340. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text

53. Frank H, Werner D, Lorusso V, Klinghammer L, Daniel WG, Kun-zendorf U, Ludwig J: Simultaneous hemodialysis during coronary angiography fails to prevent radiocontrast-induced nephropathy in chronic renal failure.

    Clin Nephrol 2003, 60:176-182. PubMed Abstract

54. Weisberg LS, Kurnik PB, Kurnik BR: Radiocontrast-induced nephropathy in humans: role of renal vasoconstriction.

    Kidney Int 1992, 41:1408-1415. PubMed Abstract

55. Solomon R: Contrast-medium-induced acute renal failure.

    Kidney Int 1998, 53:230-242. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text

56. Rudnick MR, Goldfarb S: Pathogenesis of contrast-induced nephropathy: experimental and clinical observations with an emphasis on the role of osmolality.

    Rev Cardiovasc Med 2003, (Suppl 5):S28-S33.

57. Moreau JF, Droz D, Noel LH, Leibowitch J, Jungers P, Michel JR: Tubular nephrotoxicity of water-soluble iodinated contrast media.

    Invest Radiol 1980, 15:S54-S60. PubMed Abstract

58. Moreau JF, Noel LH, Droz D: Proximal renal tubular vacuolization induced by iodinated contrast media, or so-called 'osmotic nephrosis'.

    Invest Radiol 1993, 28:187-190. PubMed Abstract

59. Baliga R, Ueda N, Walker PD, Shah SV: Oxidant mechanisms in toxic acute renal failure.

    Am J Kidney Dis 1997, 29:465-477. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text

60. Yoshioka T, Fogo A, Beckman JK: Reduced activity of antioxidant enzymes underlies contrast media-induced renal injury in volume depletion.

    Kidney Int 1992, 41:1008-1015. PubMed Abstract

61. Bakris GL, Lass N, Gaber AO, Jones JD, Burnett JC Jr: Radiocontrast medium-induced declines in renal function: a role for oxygen free radicals.

    Am J Physiol 1990, 258:F115-F120. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text

62. Caldicott WJ, Hollenberg NK, Abrams HL: Characteristics of response of renal vascular bed to contrast media. Evidence for vasoconstriction induced by renin-angiotensin system.

    Invest Radiol 1970, 5:539-547. PubMed Abstract

63. Katzberg RW, Morris TW, Burgener FA, Kamm DE, Fischer HW: Renal renin and hemodynamic responses to selective renal artery catheterization and angiography.

    Invest Radiol 1977, 12:381-388. PubMed Abstract

64. Corradi A, Menta R, Cambi V, Maccarini P, Cerutti R: Pharmaco-kinetics of iopamidol in adults with renal failure.

    Arzneimittelforschung 1990, 40:830-832. PubMed Abstract

65. Waaler A, Svaland M, Fauchald P, Jakobsen JA, Kolmannskog F, Berg KJ: Elimination of iohexol, a low osmolar nonionic contrast medium, by hemodialysis in patients with chronic renal failure.

    Nephron 1990, 56:81-85. PubMed Abstract

66. Ueda J, Furukawa T, Takahashi S, Sakaguchi K: Elimination of ioversol by hemodialysis.

    Acta Radiol 1996, 37:826-829. PubMed Abstract

67. Furukawa T, Ueda J, Takahashi S, Sakaguchi K: Elimination of low-osmolality contrast media by hemodialysis.

    Acta Radiol 1996, 37:966-971. PubMed Abstract

68. Schindler R, Stahl C, Venz S, Ludat K, Krause W, Frei U: Removal of contrast media by different extracorporeal treatments.

    Nephrol Dial Transplant 2001, 16:1471-1474. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text

69. Hoffmann U, Banas B, Fischereder M, Kramer BK: N-acetylcysteine in the prevention of radiocontrast-induced nephropathy: clinical trials and end points.

    Kidney Blood Press Res 2004, 27:161-166. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text

70. Hoffmann U, Fischereder M, Kruger B, Drobnik W, Kramer BK: The value of N-acetylcysteine in the prevention of radiocontrast agent-induced nephropathy seems questionable.

    J Am Soc Nephrol 2004, 15:407-410. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text

71. Block CA, Manning HL: Prevention of acute renal failure in the critically ill.

    Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2002, 165:320-324. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text

Have something to say? Post a comment on this article!