Towards a feasible algorithm for tight glycaemic control in critically ill patients: a systematic review of the literature

cc3981 CCJ Research Towards a feasible algorithm for tight glycaemic control in critically ill patients: a systematic review of the literature Meijering Sofie s.meijering@int.umcg.nl Corstjens M Anouk a.m.corstjens@anest.umcg.nl Tulleken E Jaap j.e.tulleken@int.umcg.nl Meertens HJM John j.h.j.m.meertens@anest.umcg.nl Zijlstra G Jan j.g.zijlstra@int.umcg.nl Ligtenberg JM Jack j.j.m.ligtenberg@int.umcg.nl

Medical Doctor, Intensive & Respiratory Care Unit (ICB), University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands

Anesthesiologist, Intensive & Respiratory Care Unit (ICB), University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands

Internist-intensivist, Intensive & Respiratory Care Unit (ICB), University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands

Anesthesiologist-intensivist, Intensive & Respiratory Care Unit (ICB), University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands

Internist-intensivist, Intensive & Respiratory Care Unit (ICB), University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands

Critical Care 1364-8535 2006 10 1 R19 http://ccforum.com/content/10/1/R19 1646912410.1186/cc3981 15 6 2005 29 7 2005 22 12 2005 3 1 2006 26 1 2006 2006 Meijering et al.; licensee BioMed Central Ltd. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Abstract

Introduction

Tight glycaemic control is an important issue in the management of intensive care unit (ICU) patients. The glycaemic goals described by Van Den Berghe and colleagues in their landmark study of intensive insulin therapy appear difficult to achieve in a real life ICU setting. Most clinicians and nurses are concerned about a potentially increased frequency of severe hypoglycaemic episodes with more stringent glycaemic control. One of the steps we took before we implemented a glucose regulation protocol was to review published trials employing insulin/glucose algorithms in critically ill patients.

Methods

We conducted a search of the PubMed, Embase and Cochrane databases using the following terms: 'glucose', 'insulin', 'protocol', 'algorithm', 'nomogram', 'scheme', 'critically ill' and 'intensive care'. Our search was limited to clinical trials conducted in humans. The aim of the papers selected was required to be glycaemic control in critically ill patients; the blood glucose target was required to be 10 mmol/l or under (or use of a protocol that resulted in a mean blood glucose = 10 mmol/l). The studies were categorized according to patient type, desired range of blood glucose values, method of insulin administration, frequency of blood glucose control, time taken to achieve the desired range for glucose, proportion of patients with glucose in the desired range, mean blood glucose and frequency of hypoglycaemic episodes.

Results

A total of twenty-four reports satisfied our inclusion criteria. Most recent studies (nine) were conducted in an ICU; nine others were conducted in a perioperative setting and six were conducted in patients with acute myocardial infarction or stroke. Studies conducted before 2001 did not include normoglycaemia among their aims, which changed after publication of the study by Van Den Berghe and coworkers in 2001; glycaemic goals became tighter, with a target range between 4 and 8 mmol/l in most studies.

Conclusion

Studies using a dynamic scale protocol combining a tight glucose target and the last two blood glucose values to determine the insulin infusion rate yielded the best results in terms of glycaemic control and reported low frequencies of hypoglycaemic episodes.

Introduction

Evidence is increasing that tight glycaemic control reduces morbidity and mortality in critically ill patients 123. The study conducted by Van Den Berghe and coworkers in thoracosurgical intensive care unit (ICU) patients 1 yielded impressive results; glycaemic control to a mean blood glucose of 5.7 mmol/l lowered morbidity and mortality by nearly 50%. Following the publication of this trial in 2001, many attempts have been made to achieve strict glycaemic control in ICU patients, with varying and sometimes disappointing results. The glycaemic goals described by Van Den Berghe and coworkers appear difficult to achieve in a real life ICU. Furthermore, most clinicians and nurses are concerned about the potential for an increased frequency of severe hypoglycaemic episodes. Here we review the results of clinical trials using insulin/glucose algorithms in critically ill patients, focusing on the number of blood glucose determinations in the desired range, mean blood glucose and frequency of hypoglycaemic episodes. We provide recommendations for a feasible and reliable insulin/glucose algorithm.

Materials and methods

We performed a search of the PubMed, Embase and Cochrane databases using the following terms: 'glucose', 'insulin', 'protocol', 'algorithm', 'nomogram', 'scheme', 'critically ill' and 'intensive care'. Our search was limited to full papers of clinical trials in humans. We used the following inclusion criteria: glycaemic control in critically ill patients was the objective of the study; the blood glucose target was 10 mmol/l or under (or the protocol used resulted in a mean blood glucose = 10 mmol/l); and a clear description of the study protocol was given. Studies with patients undergoing only minor surgery were not included. Studies performed with an experimental closed loop, although promising, were also excluded because this system cannot yet be applied in clinical practice. Studies employing glucose-insulin-potassium (GIK) protocols (originally not designed to achieve tight glycaemic control) were included if they satisfied the inclusion criteria.

The abstracts and the abstracts of 'related papers' were evaluated by two researchers (SM and JJML); all papers that satisfied the inclusion criteria were read carefully, and 24 reports were ultimately included in our evaluation. They were categorized according to patient type, desired range of blood glucose values, method of insulin administration, frequency of blood glucose control, time taken to achieve the desired range for blood glucose, proportion patients with blood glucose in the desired range, mean blood glucose and frequency of hypoglycemia. The algorithms used can be divided into whether they use 'sliding' or 'dynamic' scales. With a sliding scale a predetermined amount of insulin is administered, according to the range in which the actual blood glucose value is. For example, every patient with a blood glucose between 5 and 8 mmol/l receives 1 unit of insulin every hour; every patient with a blood glucose between 8 and 11 mmol/l receives 2 units per hour; and so on. In a dynamic scale the dosage of insulin is changed by a certain amount, depending on the range in which the blood glucose is. For example, if blood glucose values are between 6 and 8 mmol/l the actual insulin infusion rate is increased by 1 unit per hour, and if they are between 8 and 10 mmol/l the actual insulin infusion rate is increased by 2 units per hour.

We focused on the results of the group treated using the studied algorithm; the control group was not of interest to the present evaluation.

Results

Number of reviewed studies

Twenty-four papers were judged suitable for inclusion because they satisfied the predefined inclusion criteria (Table 1; also see the references list). Most recent studies (nine) were performed in ICUs 123456789; nine other studies took place in a perioperative setting, mostly in patients with a history of diabetes mellitus 101112131415161718; and six studies were conducted in patients with acute myocardial infarction or stroke 192021222324. Perioperative studies and studies in myocardial infarction patients were generally of limited duration. Blood glucose targets exhibited wide variation. Before 2001 most studies did not include normoglycaemia among their aims, which changed after publication of the study by Van Den Berghe and coworkers 1; glycaemic goals became tighter, with a target range between 4 and 8 mmol/l in most studies.

Table 1

Summary of studies included in the present evaluation

Ref. (year)

Number of patients and category

Blood glucose target (mmol/l)

Method

Used BG meter

Frequency of measurements

Hypoglycaemia (mmol/l)

Results (mmol/l)

[1]

765 Thoracosurgical ICU patients

4.4–6.1

Start at BG >6.1 mmol/l. Insulin ± 0.1–2 IU/hour depending on last two BG values. Glucose infusion or feeding

ICU based ABL700^®bloodgas/BG analyzer. Arterial blood samples

1–4 hours

5.1% of patients <2.2

Mean morning BG 5.7 ± 1.1

[4] (2004)

27 Mixed ICU patients

4–7

Bath IIP: insulin ± 0.5–4 IU/hour, depending on last two BG values

Accu Check^®Advantage 2. Mostly arterial samples

1–2 hours

Three BG values <2.2

Median BG 6.6

[2] (2004)

800 Mixed ICU patients

<7.7

Insulin sc. If two BG values >11.1 mmol/l: insulin iv, sliding scale. Glucose infusion/feeding

Finger stick samples or plasma BG (Vitros^®lab analyzer)

Every 3 hours if sc, hourly if iv

0.34% of patients <2.2

Mean BG 7.2 70% of BG <7.7

[5] (2001)

20 Critically ill diabetic patients

6.7

Insulin iv between -1.5 and +1.5 IU/hours depending on last two BG values. Glucose-potassium infusions

OneTouch^®II. Capillary samples

4 hours

No BG <2.5

Mean BG 7.8 ± 0.2

[6] (2004)

118 Cardiothoracic ICU patients

5.5–7.7

Yale IIP. Insulin ± 0.5–10 IU, depending on last two BG values and infusion rate

OneTouch^®Surestep Flex

1 hour

0.2% of BG <3.3

73% between 4.4 and 7.7

[7] (2004)

52 Medical ICU patients

5.5–7.7

Yale IIP. Insulin ± 0.5–10 IU, depending on last two BG values and infusion rate

OneTouch^®Surestep Flex

1–4 hours

0.3% of BG <3.3

66% between 4.4 and 7.7

[3] (2004)

50 Mixed ICU patients

4.5–6.1

Insulin ± 0.5–2 IU/hour, depending on last two BG values. Dextrose infusion or feeding

Accu Check^®Inform. Capillary samples

1–2 hours

4% of patients <2.2

11.5 ± 3.7 hours/day between 4.5 and 6.1

[8] (2004)

168 Cardiothoracic ICU patients

4.4–8.3

Insulin 1–16 IU/hour + bolus, sliding scale, depending on last BG value

Accu Check^®Inform. Venous samples

1–4 hours

7.1% of BG <2.2

61% of BG between 4.4 and 8.3

[9] (2003)

17 Diabetic patients, acute medical diseases

6–7

GIK + bolus, insulin 1–4 IU/h, dynamic scale, depending on last BG value

Hemocue^®meter. Capillary samples

1 hour

Four times

Mean BG 10.1

[10] (2002)

37 Postsurgical NIDDM patients

19 patients sc, 18 patients iv, sliding scale, 5% glucose infusion

Glucometer^®. Capillary samples

4 hours

5.6% of patients in iv group

sc mean: 7.2 ± 1.2 iv mean: 7.3± 1.1

[11] (2004)

72 Cardiothoracic diabetic patients

6.9–11.1

GIK protocol. Continuous GIK infusion + insulin bolus if BG >15 mmol/l

1 hour

Mean BG 7.7 ± 0.2

[31] (1996)

60 Surgical NIDDM patients

3.3–11.1

Insulin bolus if BG >11.1 mmol/l. Group 1: saline. Group 2: glucose-insulin. Group 3: bolus every 2 hours

Capillary samples

15 min

Mean BG <9 within all groups

[12] (2002)

29 Diabetic patients, cardiac surgery, 5 days

6.7–11.1

Start if BG >7.8 mol/l. Sliding scale

Venous and capillary samples

Six measurements per day

0.2% of BG <3.8

Mean BG 9.5

[13] (1997)

595 Diabetic patients, cardiac surgery

<11.1 l

Portland protocol: insulin depending on last two BG values and insulin infusion rate

Glucometer

1–2 hourly

Mean BG 9.7

[14] (1987)

24 Diabetic patients after surgery

6.7–10

Insulin ± 0.5 IU/hour depending on BG. Bolus if BG >13.3 mol/l. 5% dextrose infusion

Accu Check + strips

2 hourly

1.4% of measurements

Mean BG between 6.7 and 10

[15] (1988)

30 Diabetic patients, perioperative

5–10

Group 1: iv, every 4 hours ± 0.5 IU/hour. Group 2: sc, every 4 hours ± 2 IU/4 hours. Glucose-potassium infusion

Glucometer

Hourly during surgery, 4 hourly after surgery

0.6% of measurements <2.8 in iv group

67% of iv group between 5.0 and 10; 40% in sc group

[17] (2002)

188 Patients, during cardiac surgery

4.4–6.6

Start (2 IU/hour) with BG >6.6 mmol/l. Double infusion rate until BG <6.6 mol/l.

20 min

12% of patients with BG <3.8

In 23% of patients BG <8.3

[18] (1994)

77 Diabetic patients, surgery

6.7–10

Insulin ± 0.5–1.0 U/hr depending on BG

Reflolux S (+strips) and Glucose hexokinase (lab)

4 hourly, hourly during surgery

Two patients

62% of patients BG between 3.5 and 15.0

[19] (2000)

24 Type 2 diabetic patients, acute myocardial infarction

8.3–11.0

Insulin ± 1–2 IU/h, depending on BG range.

Venous samples. Automatic analyzer (lab)

30 min to 2 hours

Mean BG 6.9 ± 0.8

[20] (2002)

25 Diabetic patients, acute coronary syndromes

6.6–8.2

Insulin change by -1 to +3 IU/hour, depending on BG

Beckman^®glucose analyzer II

1–3 hourly

Four patients with mild hypoglycaemia

Mean 7.2 ± 1.7

[21] (1999)

25 Patients, acute stroke (during 24 hours)

4–7

GIK: 500 ml glucose 10% + 16 U insulin + 20 mmol KCl; 100 ml/hour. ± 4 U insulin/infusate, depending on BG

BM Glycemic strips

2 hourly

One patient

Mean BG of 68% of patients <7

[22] (1992)

29 Diabetic patients, acute myocardial infarction

4–8, to reach within 4 hours

Sliding scale, more insulin with left ventricular failure and bodyweight >120 % of ideal

Capillary samples

1–4 hourly

1.2% of BG <3

Mean BG 8.2 ± 1.3

[23] (1994)

158 Diabetic patients, acute myocardial infarction

7–10

>15 mmol/l; bolus iv. Insulin ± 0.5–1 IU/hour depending on BG. Glucose infusion

Venous samples. Reflolux II

1–2 hourly

17.7% of patients with BG <3.0 mmol/l

Mean BG 9.2 ± 2.9 after 24 hours

[24] (1991)

35 Diabetic patients, acute myocardial infarction

4–8

Sliding scale. Dextrose 5% infusion

Glucometer II^®. Capillary samples

2–4 hourly

Mean BG 10.3 ± 2.1

Studies mentioned in the table are arranged according to patient category. Intensive care patients at the top, followed by surgical patients, divided in patients undergoing general surgery and patients undergoing cardiac surgery. The third category of patients consists of patients with an acute myocardial infarction. BG, blood glucose; IIP, insulin infusion protocol; iv, intravenous; NIDDM, noninsulin-dependent diabetes mellitus; sc, subcutaneous.

Methods of insulin administration

Insulin was administered in different ways: subcutaneously, continuous intravenous infusion combined with intravenous bolus injections, or insulin combined with glucose and potassium (glucose-insulin-potassium [GIK] infusion).

Subcutaneous insulin

Three studies employed subcutaneous insulin injections. In a limited study conducted in perioperative diabetic patients 15 the target range (5–10 mmol/l) was achieved in only 40% of patients. In another limited study (19 patients) 10, reasonable control was achieved during a 48-hour postoperative period (mean glucose 7.2 ± 1.2 mmol/l). Krinsley 2 administered subcutaneous insulin to 800 mixed ICU patients but switched the route of administration to intravenous in the event of failure to achieve glycaemic control; a blood glucose level below 7.7 mmol/l was achieved in 69% of patients. In conclusion, only a few studies employed subcutaneous insulin therapy alone. Subcutaneous therapy, followed by intravenous insulin if needed, resulted in glycaemic control in only two-thirds of ICU patients.

Continuous insulin infusion

Most study protocols used continuous intravenous insulin infusion combined with intravenous bolus injections.

Sliding scale protocols

Most studies using a sliding scale protocol resulted in moderate to disappointing regulation of blood glucose, despite blood glucose measurements every 1–4 hours. In a study conducted in diabetic patients undergoing cardiac surgery 12 the mean blood glucose was 9.5 mmol/l; in another study conducted in 29 diabetic patients with acute myocardial infarction 22 the level was 8.2 mmol/l; and in a third study conducted in 35 diabetic patients with acute myocardial infarction 24 the level was 10.3 mmol/l compared with a target of 4–8 mmol/l.

GIK protocols

An alternative way to administer insulin is in one solution with glucose and potassium (for example, GIK infusion; also known as GIPS). GIK protocols were originally not designed to acheive tight glucose regulation; this might explain why the results of GIK are variable in terms of glycaemic control.

In a study conducted in diabetic patients with acute medical diseases 9 the target of 6–8 mmol/l was not achieved despite hourly blood glucose measurements (mean blood glucose 10.1 mmol/l). In a recent study employing short-term GIK infusion and additional bolus insulin injections in patients undergoing cardiac surgery 11, a mean blood glucose of 7.7 ± 0.2 mmol/l was reached. In a GIK study conducted in acute stroke patients 21, 24% of patients had BG values above the target range of 4–7 mmol/l during the first 24 hours.

Dynamic scale protocols

In critically ill patients the best results are attained in studies using a dynamic scale protocol. The most tight glycaemic control (normoglycaemia) was achieved by Van den Berghe and coworkers 1 in 765 thoracosurgical patients; the mean morning blood glucose was 5.7 mmol/l. Hypoglycaemia (<2.2 mmol//) was identified in 5% of patients. Recently, in a study conducted in a mixed medical-surgical ICU population 3, blood glucose levels were between 4.5 and 6.1 mmol/l for 11.5 hours per day, with a reduction in the incidence of severe hypoglycaemia from 16% to 4% after implementation of the study protocol. Unfortunately, the report provides no information regarding the mean blood glucose. In a recent study conducted in 27 mixed ICU patients 4 a median blood glucose of 6.6 mmol/l was reported. Dazzi and coworkers 5 performed a study in 20 critically ill diabetic patients; the mean blood glucose was 7.8 mmol/l. The frequency of hypoglycaemia was low, with no blood glucose values below 2.5 mmol/l.

In general, these recent studies using a dynamic scale yielded better results in terms of glycaemic control to predefined targets and a low frequency of hypoglycaemic episodes compared with studies using sliding scale protocols. They all combine a tight glucose target and the use of the last two blood glucose values to determine the insulin infusion rate 134567].

Methods of blood glucose determination

Most studies used handheld meters with strips for blood glucose determination at the bedside. In the study by Van Den Berghe and coworkers 1, an ICU-based blood gas/blood glucose analyzer was used. In the evaluated studies blood glucose was measured in arterial, venous, or capillary blood samples.

Discussion

Tight blood glucose control in critically ill patients can best be achieved using a protocol with continuous insulin infusion combined with frequent blood glucose determinations and the use of the last two blood glucose values to determine the insulin infusion rate. Although there is much concern about hypoglycaemia, the frequency of severe hypoglycaemic episodes has been found to be less than 4–5%; in some studies this was even lower than with protocols used in the control groups.

Debate is ongoing regarding the desired BG target. In the real life ICU any change in blood glucose level toward the normal range with an insulin infusion protocol will probably improve hospital survival and reduce morbidity both in surgical and in medical ICU patients 1225. The mechanisms underlying the effects of glucose toxicity or the possibility of beneficial effects of insulin infusion per se remain to be unravelled 2627. At present there is no strong evidence that regulation between 4 and 6 mmol/l is more beneficial then regulation between 6 and 8 mmol/l. Most studies apparently aimed for a somewhat higher, probably more feasible, target. On the other hand, ongoing trials such as the Portland protocol 28 have set lower target ranges – between 4.4 and 6.6 mmol/l.

The advice given in the recent Surviving Sepsis Campaign Guidelines 29 – specifically to maintain blood glucose level below 8.3 mmol/l following initial stabilization – seems practical and safe in common clinical practice, but will not always result in improvement of glucose regulation in every ICU. For our medical ICU we calculated a mean blood glucose of all patients admitted in 2000–2001 of 7.5 ± 2.9 mmol/l, which was achieved with insulin administration prescribed at the physician's discretion 30. To achieve an improvement in morbidity and mortality, we must probably select a blood glucose target lower than 7.5 mmol/l.

In most studies handheld meters with strips were used. The literature on point-of-care testing suggests that accuracy varies with the different handheld meters. Because we found that an ICU-based blood gas/blood glucose analyzer had the best correlation coefficient with our gold standard (central clinical laboratory measurement), we prefer using this device to handheld meters 28. Furthermore, the studies evaluated here used capillary, venous, or arterial blood for glucose determination. It is known that full blood glucose and plasma glucose values differ, and the same is true for arterial and venous blood samples.

In summary, we can make the following recommendations regarding the implementation of a feasible glucose regulation protocol. First, choose a blood glucose target between 4 and 8 mmol/l. How 'low' depends on local possibilities (personnel, workload, fast and accurate point-of-care blood glucose determination, among other factors) and on the prevailing mean blood glucose level before starting a protocol. Second, it is preferable to use a dynamic scale protocol with continuous insulin infusion combined with frequent blood glucose determinations (hourly to every four hours) and to use the last two blood glucose values to determine the insulin infusion rate. Feasible protocols can be found in the recent literature (Table 1; also see the references list). Third, tight regulation without hypoglycaemia is probably easier to achieve if continuous enteral feeding can be provided. Whether continuous glucose infusion is necessary before enteral feeding is started is not clear yet. Finally, frequent blood glucose determinations impose increased nursing workload, and acceptance of the protocol by nurses is very important for successful implementation. Training, education and subsequently feedback is necessary to motivate ICU nurses 37.

Conclusion

Tight glycaemic control in critically ill patients can best be achieved using a protocol involving continuous insulin infusion combined with frequent blood glucose determinations (hourly to 4 hourly) and the use of the last two blood glucose values to determine the insulin infusion rate. The blood glucose target to aim for must be between 4 and 8 mmol/l and depends on local possiblities (personnel, fast and accurate point-of-care blood glucose determination, among other factors) and on the prevailing mean blood glucose level before starting a protocol. Acceptance of the protocol by nurses is very important for successful implementation.

Key messages

• Tight glycaemic control in critically ill patients can best be achieved using a protocol with continuous insulin infusion combined with frequent blood glucose determinations and the use of the last two blood glucose values to determine the insulin infusion rate.

• The blood glucose target must be between 4 and 8 mmol/l and depends on local possibilities (personnel, fast and accurate point-of-care blood glucose determination, among other factors) and on the prevailing mean blood glucose level before starting a protocol.

• Frequency of severe hypoglycaemia may even be lower than with existing 'routine' protocols.

• Acceptance of the protocol by nurses is important for successful implementation.

Abbreviations

GIK = glucose-insulin-potassium, ICU = intensive care unit.

Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Authors' contributions

SM and JJML conducted the study, collected data, and drafted the manuscript. AMC, JGZ, JET and JHJMM assisted in writing the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Intensive insulin therapy in the critically ill patients van den Berghe G Wouters P Weekers F Verwaest C Bruyninckx F Schetz M Vlasselaers D Ferdinande P Lauwers P Bouillon R N Engl J Med 2001 345 1359 1367 10.1056/NEJMoa011300 11794168 Effect of an intensive glucose management protocol on the mortality of critically ill adult patients Krinsley JS Mayo Clin Proc 2004 79 992 1000 15301325 Standardization of intravenous insulin therapy improves the efficiency and safety of blood glucose control in critically ill adults Kanji S Singh A Tierney M Meggison H McIntyre L Hebert PC Intensive Care Med 2004 30 804 810 10.1007/s00134-004-2252-2 15127193 Implementing intensive insulin therapy: development and audit of the Bath insulin protocol Laver S Preston S Turner D McKinstry C Padkin A Anaesth Intensive Care 2004 32 311 316 15264724 The control of blood glucose in the critical diabetic patient: a neuro-fuzzy method Dazzi D Taddei F Gavarini A Uggeri E Negro R Pezzarossa A J Diabetes Complications 2001 15 80 87 10.1016/S1056-8727(00)00137-9 11274904 Improving glycemic control in the cardiothoracic intensive care unit: clinical experience in two hospital settings Goldberg PA Sakharova OV Barrett PW Falko LN Roussel MG Bak L Blake-Holmes D Marieb NJ Inzucchi SE J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth 2004 18 690 697 10.1053/j.jvca.2004.08.003 15650975 Implementation of a safe and effective insulin infusion protocol in a medical intensive care unit Goldberg PA Siegel MD Sherwin RS Halickman JI Lee M Bailey VA Lee SL Dziura JD Inzucchi SE Diabetes Care 2004 27 461 467 14747229 An insulin infusion protocol in critically ill cardiothoracic surgery patients Zimmerman CR Mlynarek ME Jordan JA Rajda CA Horst HM Ann Pharmacother 2004 38 1123 1129 10.1345/aph.1E018 15150382 Validation of a glucose-insulin-potassium infusion algorithm in hospitalized diabetic patients Bonnier M Lonnroth P Gudbjornsdottir S Attvall S Jansson PA J Intern Med 2003 253 189 193 10.1046/j.1365-2796.2003.01085.x 12542559 Insulin subcutaneous application vs. continuous infusion for postoperative blood glucose control in patients with non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus Gonzalez-Michaca L Ahumada M Ponce-de-Leon S Arch Med Res 2002 33 48 52 10.1016/S0188-4409(01)00354-X 11825631 Tight glycemic control in diabetic coronary artery bypass graft patients improves perioperative outcomes and decreases recurrent ischemic events Lazar HL Chipkin SR Fitzgerald CA Bao Y Cabral H Apstein CS Circulation 2004 109 1497 1502 10.1161/01.CIR.0000121747.71054.79 15006999 Description and evaluation of a glycemic management protocol for patients with diabetes undergoing heart surgery Markovitz LJ Wiechmann RJ Harris N Hayden V Cooper J Johnson G Harelstad R Calkins L Braithwaite SS Endocr Pract 2002 8 10 18 11939754 Glucose control lowers the risk of wound infection in diabetics after open heart operations Zerr KJ Furnary AP Grunkemeier GL Bookin S Kanhere V Starr A Ann Thorac Surg 1997 63 356 361 10.1016/S0003-4975(96)01044-2 9033300 Postoperative management of diabetes mellitus: steady-state glucose control with bedside algorithm for insulin adjustment Watts NB Gebhart SS Clark RV Phillips LS Diabetes Care 1987 10 722 728 3322729 Perioperative management of diabetic subjects. Subcutaneous versus intravenous insulin administration during glucose-potassium infusion Pezzarossa A Taddei F Cimicchi MC Rossini E Contini S Bonora E Gnudi A Uggeri E Diabetes Care 1988 11 52 58 3276477 Intravenous insulin infusion therapies for postoperative coronary artery bypass graft patients DeCherney GS Maser RE Lemole GM Serra AJ McNicholas KW Shapira N Del Med J 1998 70 399 404 9805407 Intraoperative insulin therapy does not reduce the need for inotropic or antiarrhythmic therapy after cardiopulmonary bypass Groban L Butterworth J Legault C Rogers AT Kon ND Hammon JW J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth 2002 16 405 412 10.1053/jcan.2002.125152 12154416 Perioperative diabetes regulation with the help of a standard protocol Jaspers CA Elte JW Olthof G Neth J Med 1994 44 122 130 8196822 The role of strict metabolic control by insulin infusion on fibrinolytic profile during an acute coronary event in diabetic patients Melidonis A Stefanidis A Tournis S Manoussakis S Handanis S Zairis M Dadiotis L Foussas S Clin Cardiol 2000 23 160 164 10761802 Intensive insulin treatment reduces transient ischaemic episodes during acute coronary events in diabetic patients Stefanidis A Melidonis A Tournis S Zairis M Handanis S Olympios C Asimacopoulos P Foussas S Acta Cardiol 2002 57 357 364 12405574 Glucose potassium insulin infusions in the treatment of acute stroke patients with mild to moderate hyperglycemia: the Glucose Insulin in Stroke Trial (GIST) Scott JF Robinson GM French JM O'Connell JE Alberti KG Gray CS Stroke 1999 30 793 799 10187881 An algorithm for tight glycaemic control in diabetic infarct survivors Hendra TJ Yudkin JS Diabetes Res Clin Pract 1992 16 213 220 10.1016/0168-8227(92)90120-G 1425142 Feasibility of insulin-glucose infusion in diabetic patients with acute myocardial infarction. A report from the multicenter trial: DIGAMI Malmberg KA Efendic S Ryden LE Diabetes Care 1994 17 1007 1014 7988298 Metabolic control in diabetic subjects following myocardial infarction: difficulties in improving blood glucose levels by intravenous insulin infusion Davies RR Newton RW McNeill GP Fisher BM Kesson CM Pearson D Scott Med J 1991 36 74 76 1925506 Effect of hyperglycemia and continuous intravenous insulin infusions on outcomes of cardiac surgical procedures: the Portland Diabetic Project Furnary AP Wu Y Bookin SO Endocr Pract 2004 21 33 15251637 How does blood glucose control with insulin save lives in intensive care? van den Berghe G J Clin Invest 2004 114 1187 1195 524243 15520847 10.1172/JCI200423506 Glycemic and nonglycemic effects of insulin: how do they contribute to a better outcome of critical illness? Vanhorebeek I Langouche L van den Berghe G Curr Opin Crit Care 2005 11 304 311 10.1097/01.ccx.0000170506.61281.94 16015107 Surviving Sepsis Campaign guidelines for management of severe sepsis and septic shock Dellinger RP Carlet JM Masur H Gerlach H Calandra T Cohen J Gea-Banacloche J Keh D Marshall JC Parker MM Intensive Care Med 2004 30 536 555 14997291 10.1007/s00134-004-2398-y Mean glucose level is not an independent risk factor for mortality in mixed ICU patients Ligtenberg JJ Meijering S Stienstra Y Tulleken J Nijsten MW Vogelzang M Zijlstra JG Intensive Care Med 2006 Accuracy of bedside bloodglucose measurements in critically ill patients: a prospective study van der Horst IC Spanjersberg R Meijering S de Wit H Zijlstra JG Tulleken JE Ligtenberg JJ Int Care Med 2004 30 S59 Use of i.v. insulin in well-controlled non-insulin-dependent diabetics undergoing major surgery Raucoules-Aime M Labib Y Levraut J Gastaud P Dolisi C Grimaud D Br J Anaesth 1996 76 198 202 8777097